Discuss the argument whether Freuds theory of psycho-analysis is falsifiable or not The WritePass Journal

Discuss the argument whether Freuds theory of psycho-analysis is falsifiable or not Introduction Discuss the argument whether Freuds theory of psycho-analysis is falsifiable or not IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction This essay will discuss the argument whether Freuds theory of psycho-analysis is falsifiable or not. The ways in which Freud himself tried to view his theory as errorless are going to be explained and Karl Poppers approach to the pseudo-science is going to be discussed. Contradict opinions to Popper’s theory are going to be referred to also. Sigmunds Freud psycho-analytic theory had been very influential in the course of psychology. His ideas had been generally considered as correct and fundamental for newer theories. Many assumed so because it was always able to provide explanation to any state and therefore thought of psycho-analysis as unfalsifiable. Webster (1995) mentions that what theorists firstly considered as an advantage of Freuds theory was the fact that he discovered a way of proposing his own hypothesis and therefore finding theoretical solutions on a pseudo-empirical basis. In fact, Freud firstly made assumptions about phenomena which were not previously observed and then suggested that he is the only person capable of investigating this entity. Karl Popper (1963) stated that in order for a theory to be scientific, it has to be testable. This can be a problem for the psycho- analysis. Popper assumed that this theory provides explanations for any possible situations and cases and therefore it is, especially by its supporters, considered as flawless. It is important to note that, by Popper, this is not seen as an advantage of Freuds theory. He disagreed with such opinions and supported these ideas by stating that Freuds theory, or psycho-analysis as whole, is not refutable. However, he thought that this makes the theory not stronger, but much weaker, as it does not take any unpredictable scenarios into consideration. Poppers suggestion was to test the theories while one gets to a point when this theory is viewed as refuted. He also mentioned that psycho-analysts suppose they can explain every case in terms of their theory. It is also necessary to say that Popper did not consider those theories, which were found to be non-scien tific as not valid or insignificant. He simply supposed that such theories cannot be supported empirically but only can be outcomes of observation. When it comes to the theories of personality or also other hypothesis, every one of them is always tested in a process of acceptance. If it does not provide a satisfying explanation, newer and different solutions are looked for and tested again. A prove of such testability is that the theory offers explanations for unexpected finding and it does not only adjust the findings to itself. But Poppers idea might have been slightly different from this. Although he should get credit for reasonable doubting of Freuds theory, in general, he thought that everything needs to be testable in order to be scientific. And this might conclude in testing and therefore refuting and rejecting every idea which is not scientific. Constant testing of theories does not bring them closer to being proven right, by contrast, many might provide proofs of being falsifiable, but this won’t be noticed as further tests of falsification will follow.This would most probably conclude in rejecting most of the ps ychological theories. However, Webster (1995) emphasised that this is something Popper was aware of. Many theorists, mistakenly, supposed that the way how to show that the psycho-analysis is not a pseudo-science is to prove that is it testable (Cioffi, 1998). Grà ¼nbaum (1986) disagreed with Popper and he supported his opinion by saying that Freud was open to provide explanations to situations which were not predicted by his theory, but no such instances were found. Grà ¼nbaum therefore stated that psycho-analysis is a testable theory. He supported his arguments by using an example from Freuds 1925 paper in which he admits finding of an individual who contradicts his theoretical assumptions. But what Grà ¼nbaum had not predicted was that Freud did not admit the failure of his theory to describe such situation and later explained also this unexpected finding (Robinson, 1993). This fact proves that Poppers statements about the unfalsifiability of psycho-analysis as relevant. But Grunbaum also stated that the Popper’s criterion is not relevant as there are many different and more appropriate ways to test the differences between pseudo-sciences and real sciences (Eysenck, 1985). Eysenck (1985), have also disagreed with Popper’s statements by pronouncing that the criterion of falsifiability is irrelevant. In order to support his opinion, he provided some instances in which it is clearly showed that Freud’s theory can be proven false and therefore is testable, despite thinking that such criterion is not decisive. Freuds ideas have been widely accepted in the twentieth century. It is surprising that there are still many supporters of Freuds theory among the psychologists as his assumptions have not been scientifically proven and are often compared to the myths. As one of a very few theories, psycho-analysis is still very favoured, although many valid criticisms have been found. Those, who support this theory, will find its ideas always relevant, even if it can conclude in lowering its status among other theories. Although this finding should be, according to Popper (1963), perceived as weakness, it could be also noted that the psycho-analysis is always going to be viewed as very influential, regardless of criticisms. References Cioffi, F. (1998). Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience. USA: Carus Publishing Company. Eysenck, H. J. (1985). Decline and Fall of Freudian Empire. United Kingdom: Harmondworth Grà ¼nbaum, A. (1986). Prà ©cis of The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Vol. 9, 217-284. Popper, K. (1963). Conjectures and Refutations. London: Routledge and Keagan Paul. Robinson, P. (1993). Freud and His Critics. Berkeley: University of California Press. Webster, R. (1995). Why Freud was wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis. United Kingdom: Harper Collins Publishers

Open Systems Theory (OD) Analysis for Deckers Outdoor Corporation Research Paper

Open Systems Theory (OD) Analysis for Deckers Outdoor Corporation - Research Paper Example Through various planning, management and management, the firm has become popular across the US and other global parts. However, the company has recently encountered several challenges, forcing the company to incur various losses. Therefore, this manuscript will mull over these challenges and thereby discuss various organization diagnostic models that the firm can employ in resolving these challenges. Brief Overview of Deckers Outdoor Corporation The firm set off in 1973, with Doug Otto running it during its inception in Goleta, California. During its inception, the firm used to manufacture sandals. However, the company has grown to international level, distributing its products to diverse kinds of retailers. These include departmental stores and outlet stores among others (Latimer, 2012). Besides, the firm makes direct sales to its customers. The firm has independent distributors across Europe, Canada, Latin America, as well as Asia. It has also formed a union with Stella Internation al Holdings for the sale of UGG brand in China. The firm manufactures well-designed trendy shoes that sell across leading countries worldwide. Challenges facing the firm Counterfeit is a significant challenge that the firm is experiencing. China is the key source of these products. These counterfeits have significantly affected the UGG brand. Survey shows that the authorities impounded nearly 600 000 products, while the firm litigated over 2000 websites that sold falsified Deckers products (Latimer, 2012). These products were of low quality as contrasted to Deckers products, and thereby cheaper. This posed a considerable threat in the high profit realization of the firm, as well as company’s image. Besides, the country faces brand name controversies with various firms in Australia and Europe. These firms claim to have the sole ownership of the UGG brand. As such, there have been various court proceedings over the ownership of the brand, particularly in Australia where Uggs-n- Rugs sold their footwear item under this brand (Latimer, 2012). However, the firm still sells shoes to Australia under the brand. Additionally, various reviewers argue that the brand shoes have significant effects on animals. These critics claim that they contribute significantly towards the extinction of some animals (Latimer, 2012). As a result, they campaign against the purchase of these products, thereby compelling the firm into severe revenue loss. Organizational Diagnosis (OD) has become basic in enhancing an organization’s success. In an endeavor to improve the organizational effectiveness, it is essential to establish its current performance level thus devising apt strategies sufficient for the modification process. The concept of diagnosis in organizations applies similarly to the medical diagnosis, whereby the doctor tests the patient, gathers all the useful information prior to prescribing the best medication for the ailment. In a similar style, the management team assembles all the critical information, conducts an analysis, before devising the most suitable intervention for the organization to undertake. The current literature on organizational performance has depicted numerous benefits of performing the OD. Some of these entail the detection of all problems present in the organization, therefore, devising suitable strategies. Identification of such information is necessary in enhancing the company’s efficiency in its performance. Force Field Analysis The first model, Force

Factors Affecting Presidential Leadership Essay

Factors Affecting Presidential Leadership - Essay Example Presidential leadership can be affected by the personal capacity of the individual for leadership (Patterson 338). This is especially the case where the nation is facing a crisis and it needs the leadership of the president to see it through. The personal leadership capacity of a president often proves to be a decisive factor in the exercise of executive power because it determines whether or not his leadership is a success. The current expectation of presidential leadership in the United State is for the president to be very assertive in his actions because it can be considered to be a show of strength. This was especially the case where after the 9/11 attacks, President George Bush took the decisive action to launch the war on terror and go after al Qaeda by invading Afghanistan (Patterson 342). Therefore, the exercise of presidential power can be considered to rely heavily on the president’s personal leadership as well as how he conducts himself in diverse situations that a rise.National and international conditions have a significant effect on presidential leadership (Patterson 361). This is especially the case considering that the United States has become the most powerful country in the world and that it has to show leadership in order to not only serve its own national interests, but also those of its allies. In times of crises, both national and international, the president of the United States is often expected to display leadership and to chart the way towards finding a solution.

Auditing - Madoff Securities Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Auditing - Madoff Securities - Research Paper Example Bernard Madoff had been able to dupe thousands of investors across the world through the famous Ponzi scheme (The Wall Street Journal, 2009). The company had been keeping its investment strategies secrets for years which already hinted at the fact that there is something significantly wrong going on behind the closed doors of Madoff Securities in the Wall Street. A proper investigation of how a company can give such abnormally high returns to its investors for years may have exposed the Ponzi scheme earlier. One of the main reasons why the Ponzi scheme had not been detected from external sources is that the high returns from the financial schemes offered by Madoff Securities incited greed among the general people which often made them invest blindly in these schemes. Also, the oversight on the part of the regulators of the capital markets added to the factor of Ponzi scheme going undetected for years. For a firm which has invested in Madoff Securities, the materiality of the investments made by the company in Madoff Securities should be evaluated and established by the auditors of the investing firm. Also, the nature and amount of transactions should have been evaluated carefully. There would be associated risks of the possibility of material misstatement of the company being reported in the consolidated financial statements and the financial reports of the company. The auditors should also evaluate the risk assessment capabilities of the investing firm and take steps to detect any fraudulent reporting of the investing company in their financial reports caused by the investments in Madoff Securities. The key audit procedures included in the Audit Sections should be followed in this case. These would include a calculation of the fair value of the investments, performance of analytical procedures, inspection of the supporting documentations done for subsequent settlement or realiza tion of the investments

Great Expectations Essay Example for Free

Great Expectations Essay The audience have witnessed the pursuit, and had a brief glance at the face of the convict they have seen the airborne geese above the marshes, and they want to know what will happen When examining the film, one has to regard the social context in which the film was made. Leans version was created the year after the Second World War. People would probably need their morale boosted after the six years of conflict, and the film was probably intended to make people feel happier. In the closing stages of the Lean film, Pip meets Estella in Miss Havershams house. He pulls down the curtain, lighting the room, and shouts at Estella look around you death and decay you do not belong here you must get away from this place come with me into the sunlight. I believe that this is a metaphor; death and decay is the war and Estella represents the people of Britain. They can come out into the sunlight, and leave the war behind them. Lean is reminding the audience that they can forget the war, and go on to lead new lives. Lean also attempts to put across a moral message. When Pip is a child his conscience speaks to him and the audience. As he makes his way downstairs to steal the food there is a voice whispering, wake up Mrs. Joe, wake up Mrs. Joe, wake up Mrs. Joe. This effect does appear in the original text, every crack in every board calling after me stop thief! and Get up Mrs Joe. A similar device is that of the talking cows. Lean uses this, but again, Marchant decides not to, preferring a more realistic approach. The cows provide an element of humour in the film, but I feel that in the book they were included mainly to give the audience a glimpse of Pips conscience and not to provide comedy. This also gives the film a touch of originality. Before the 1940s a large amount of film sound was simple and ill-conceived the audience saw a car, therefore the audience should hear a car. Consequently, when the audience saw a cow, they were probably expecting to hear cow, not a human voice. Now, however, in an age when talking animals appear in most childrens television programs, the modern audiences are not likely to be surprised by the effect. Another aspect to take in consideration is the media for which the productions were originally created. The BBC version was written for the television, bringing the characters into the home. I assume that Leans film was originally created for the cinema. Lean shows this in many ways. The modern audience can recognize that aspects such as the silhouetted gibbets would have a greater impact when shown on the large screen. Both films are set many decades before the dates they were made, and neither audience had experiences of the period in which the story was set. Marchants version is an attempt at an accurate historical representation of the Victorian age. I feel that Lean decided to concentrate more on storyline, and the following of Dickens text rather than being fixated in creating an accurate historical representation of Victorian Britain. Dickens had written from his own first hand experience of the era, so he knew what had happened. The descriptions of the characters in the text are very precise, and Lean has concentrated on creating the individuals that Dickens described. This is probably what the audience would expect. The post-war audience would want to look back on the age of empire in the way that Dickens did, but in the 1990s, a new approach is expected by the increasingly changing audience. Dickens is generally considered as boring and tedious, and the Marchant film attempts to give a fresh, 20th century makeover to one of Britains most celebrated authors. To conclude, I feel that, considering the circumstances in which it was made, Leans film was the more successful of the two. In post war Britain there was not a huge amount of money for making films, and there was limited technology available for the production. Materials were expensive and scarce, and could not be easily obtained. The film manages to make the opening sequence terrifying, exciting and tense, without using excessive violence or disturbing images. It manages to portray the novel in a realistic way, and his storyline is truer to the original than the BBC version. Sonya Shah Page 1 of 4 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Great Expectations section.

A Violent Message in the Art of Popular Culture Essay -- Pop Culture R

A â€Å"Violent† Message in the Art of Popular Culture Many people believe that present-day music cause division, tension, and sometimes violence. However, it is acknowledged as art in popular culture. Art in popular culture revolves around action movies, television sitcoms, and provocative song lyrics, which have themes centered on explicit sexuality. Art in popular culture is embodied in music, dance, photography, and other artwork that embraces the ills of the world and acknowledges that they are appealing to the senses of people who live in a not so perfect world. Many critics say that popular culture is a product of generation X. A messed up group of people. What is wrong with popular culture? Why do the baby boomers regale this era of popular culture an era of madness? The answer is blatantly clear. Popular culture accepts the flaws of all its admirers and participants. For example, music in popular culture is generally deemed as negative. However, a positive consequence is that it has an international language and every one around the world can relate to what it communicates. Art in popular culture encompasses a common language, especially the art of music. This language rejects the sophisticated, civilized, intellectuals. For instance, popular culture inhibits the old, boring, classical music that operated out of the same musical dictionary and responded to the same chords. Whereas, music in popular culture rejects harmony as being important and values improvisation that breathes life-giving rhythm in non-structural chords. Music in popular culture is a genre distinct from both folk and classical music genres. According to The New Harvard Dictionary, it differed from the former being composed and notat... ...lent in this country. Some examples of Manson’s music, which can influence youth of today or could have taken the life of the young teenager previously mentioned are Dried Up, Tied Up and Dead to the World; Get Your Gun; Cake and Sodomy; Organ Grinder; Snake Eyes and Sissies; and etc. It is funny how rap and hip hop is essentially the only thing deemed violent, but popular culture stems from chaotic and violent factors. The two examples above can vouch for the previous statement. When looking at other outcomes of popular culture such as slasher movies with explicit sex scenes; talk shows that depicts American women as housewives or whores; or people like Monica Lewinsky who shows her bloomers to married men, popular culture music genres are just artistic expressions that mirror societal values in popular culture. Sometimes people do not like the reflection.

Deception as a Symptom of a Corrupt Society in Marlowe and Wilde Essay

The desperate need to be moral within society contributes to the motivations, choices, and actions made by people everyday.   It is society which defines what morality is and applies the necessary pressure to force individuals to conform.   Often, failing under these societal pressures, individuals are forced to use deception to escape the oppressive nature of their society.   Oscar Wilde, in The Importance of Being Earnest and Christopher Marlowe, in Dr. Faustus, venture into nature of society and how it effects the individuals within that society.   Marlowe and Wilde assert that   deception is a symptom of a corrupt society not a character flaw.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The plot of The Importance of Being Earnest centers around deception.   Algernon is a wealth bachelor that lives in London.   He often pretends to have a friend Bunbury who is sick and lives in the country.   Whenever Algernon wishes to escape certain social â€Å"duties† he is explains that he simply can no because he has to visit his sick friend.   He can then escape and enjoy the pleasures that Victorian society called improper.   However, his friend, Bunbury, does not exist.   Through this form of deception Algernon not only gets pity from his friends he also has the perfect excuse to do whatever he wants. Algernon’s believes his best friend is named Ernest.   Ernest is actually John Worthing. Look more:  satire in the importance of being earnest essay John Worthing is   also using deception to escape his restrictive and boring existence.   He tells his friends that he has a wayward brother who lives in London and is often in trouble.   Therefore he must go to London to bail his brother out.   When John is in London he goes by the name of Ernest.   He pretends to be a good man in country only to be a â€Å"bad†man in the city. John wants to marry Gwendolen, but she wants to marry a man named Ernest.   When she meets John using the name Ernest she falls deeply in love with him.   Gwen’s aunt insists on knowing his family background and he is forced to reveal that is real parents left him at a train station and he was adopted by a rich upstanding Victorian family. Algernon has the idea that he will go into the country to visit John and pretend to be Ernest.   He is unaware that John has given up his city life and has planned the tragic (but unreal) death of his brother.   Deception plays a vital role in this play.   If John and Algernon did not lie there would be no play.   If each character followed the Victorians standards of society, there would be no plot.   While this play is a comedy,   Wilde’s point is clear: only through deception can people exist in Victorian society.   If they did not use deception everyone would surely die from boredom and the suffocating grasp of society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Similarly, Marlowe’s Dr. Faustus   is based on deception. Dr. Faustus begins with Dr. Faustus looking for his true self.   He wants to figure out who he is.   He possesses all the supposed quality of a man of the renaissance.   He is intelligent, well educated, and has come to a point in his life where he must realize who he truly is.   This type of man is ambitious and driven.   However, as he becomes more and more powerful, he losses his humanity through the use of his power for deception.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The societies in Importance of Being Earnest and Dr. Faustus are both portrayed as corrupt.   In â€Å"Dr. Faustus† the Renaissance court is the representative evil society.   It is a toxic environment that breeds blind ambition, betrayal, and evil.   Seeking the highest form of knowledge, he arrives at theology and opens the Bible to the New Testament, where he quotes from Romans and the first book of John. He reads that â€Å"[t]he reward of sin is death,† and that â€Å"[i]f we say we that we have no sin, / We deceive ourselves, and there’s no truth in us.† The logic of these quotations—everyone sins, and sin leads to death—makes it seem as though Christianity can promise only death, which leads Faustus to give in to the fatalistic â€Å"What will be, shall be! Divinity, adieu!† However, Faustus neglects to read the very next line in John, which states, â€Å"If we confess our sins, [God] is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness† (1 John 1:9). By ignoring this passage, Faustus ignores the possibility of redemption, just as he ignores it throughout the play.   Similarly, Wilde finds Victorian society equally as corrupt.   In The Importance of Being Earnest he uses the character of Lady Bracknell to symbolize Victorian society.   She represents â€Å"earnestness† which is demanded within her society as well as the discontent that it breeds.   She is dominating, conceited, bitter, frigid, and extremely proper.   It is through Lady Bracknell that the Victorian standards in regards to marriage, religion, money, respectability, and society are revealed. Lady Bracknell comments â€Å"I do not approve of anything that tampers with natural ignorance †¦ touch it and the bloom is gone†¦whole theory of modern education is radically unsound†¦education produces no effect †¦ it would prove a serious danger to the upper classes† (Wilde Act II)  Ã‚   The Renaissance is used by Marlowe as an ever present influence which causes the each of the characters within in Dr. Faustus to use deception to survive.   The cruel and unforgiving nature of Victorian society is equally as influential causing the characters of Importance of Being Earnest to use deception to acquire socially desirable things.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dr. Faustus and Jack are both individuals which are forced by society to deceive their family and friends.   Dr. Faustus,   is a bright young man with many talents.   Dr. Faustus is an educated man. He is not only educated he has a great wisdom.   This wisdom was not earned.   Dr. Faustus makes a deal with the devil to get more knowledge.   He thought that the god of the underworld could make all the knowledge past, present, and future to him. This is when the first deception happens.   Dr.   Faustus makes himself believe that there is no underworld and no circles of hell.     This is the second deception.   He forces himself to believe in the Elysian Fields which is a place where good people go and once there, if they were good enough, they were given the gift to live forever.   He believed he was a good person and would spend the rest of life, after death, with the greatest and more moral people that ever lived.   Faustus even asks Mephistopheles â€Å"What is Hell?† The answer should have caused Faustus to shiver and turn to the God he had renounced: Why this is hell, nor am I out of it. Thinks’t thou that I, who saw the face of God,and tasted the eternal joys of heaven, am not tormented with ten thousand hells in being deprived of everlasting bliss! O Faustus, leave these frivolous demands, which strike terror to my fainting soul. Wilde’s Jack Worthing is is equally effected by his society.   Jack lives two lives and both are false.   In the country he remains a respectable and upstanding upper class man who is miserable.  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, he leads a secret life in the city which brings him both pleasure and inner disgrace.   Jack comments â€Å"When one is in town one amuses oneself. When one is in the country one amuses other people† (Wilde Act I). He lies to his friends and recounts stories of his invented brother Ernest who is always getting into trouble.   Jack uses Ernest as his excuse to go into the city and find a few moments of happiness.   It is only through deception that Jack can find happiness within the restrictive Victorian society.  Ã‚   Jack’s real family is not of the upper class. His current position in society is only through his adoptive family and his adoptive father’s money.   Jack knows, understand, and pretends to conform to crushing societal norms.   Even his name, Worthing, is reminds the audience to question – is he really worthy?   Jack wishes to marry Gwendolen not because of any great and deep love.   He knows that through marriage to a woman of an affluent family that he can gain respectability and fully belong in the society he longs to be in. Due to this societal pressures he is willing to do whatever it takes to make the marriage happen.   When confronted with his deception he admits â€Å"it is very painful for me to be forced to speak the truth. It is the first time in my life that I have ever been reduced to such a painful position, and I am really quite inexperienced in doing anything of the kind† (Importance Act II).   Dr. Faustus and Jack are both victims of corrupt societies which contribute to their deceptive behavior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wilde and Marlowe both examine the effect of a crippling society on the character and morality of it’s citizens. Wilde asserts that the restrictive nature of Victorian society caused Jack and Algernon to employ deceptive choices in their lives escape the discontent of a proper society.   If Jack lived in a more liberal and understanding society he would be able to honestly pursue the activities which make him happy.   Marlowe pre-dates Wilde’s point of view.   He intricately details in Dr. Faustus, how the devil and all men can be tempted and utilize deception to survive.   If Dr. Faustus did not exist in a corrupt society he would have not been corrupted himself. Each play offers a mirror through which the brutal tendencies of society and weakness of human nature are reflected for the reader.   The condition of society is easily reflected in the character and actions of members of that society.   Societies use fear of cruel punishment (especially social outcasting) to encourage and direct the behavior of people within that society.   As members of this society we become immune and blind to the influence of these forces and conform without question. Works Cited Marlowe, Christopher. â€Å"The Tragedy Dr. Faustus.† THE NORTON   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE. Ed. Alison Booth, J. Paul Hunter, Kelly J. Mays, and . New York: Norton, 2000. Wilde, Oscar.   â€Å"The Importance of Earnest.†Ã‚   THE NORTON INTRODUCTION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   TO LITERATURE. Ed. Alison Booth, J. Paul Hunter, Kelly J. Mays, and .   Ã‚  Ã‚   New York: Norton, 2000.